Maternal undernutrition during pregnancy and lactation increases transcription factors, ETV5 and GDNF, and alters regulation of apoptosis and heat shock proteins in the testis of adult offspring in the rat.

We tested whether changes in Sertoli cell transcription factors and germ cell heat shock proteins (HSPs) are linked to the effects of maternal undernutrition on male offspring fertility. Rats were fed ad libitum with a standard diet (CONTROL) throughout pregnancy and lactation or with 50% of CONTROL intake throughout pregnancy (UNP) or lactation (UNL) or both periods (UNPL). After postnatal Day 21, 10 male pups per group were fed a standard diet ad libitum until postnatal Day 160 when testes were processed for histological, mRNA and immunohistochemical analyses. Compared with CONTROL: caspase-3 was increased in UNP and UNPL (P=0.001); Bax was increased in UNL (P=0.002); Bcl-2 (P<0.0001) was increased in all underfed groups; glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (P=0.002) was increased in UNP and UNL; E twenty-six transformation variant gene 5 and HSP70 were increased, and HSP90 was diminished in all underfed groups (P<0.0001). It appears that maternal undernutrition during pregnancy and lactation disrupts the balance between proliferation and apoptosis in germ cells, increasing germ cell production and perhaps exceeding the support capacity of the Sertoli cells. Moreover, fertility could be further compromised by changes in meiosis and spermiogenesis mediated by germ cell HSP90 and HSP70.

Heat shock protein HSP90 immunoexpression in equine endometrium during oestrus, dioestrus and anoestrus.

Heat shock proteins play a crucial role in cellular development, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) has been localised in the human endometrium, where its immunoexpression changes during the menstrual cycle. Similar studies have not been done for the equid species, so the present study aimed to describe endometrial HSP90 immunoexpression in mare endometrium. Endometrial biopsies were formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded, and sections were stained with haematoxylin-eosin in preparation for HSP90 immunohistochemistry. Immunostaining and morphometric analyses were performed on the epithelial lining, endometrial glands and connective stroma during oestrus, dioestrus phase and anoestrus period (n = 7 per phase or period). Immunoexpression was localised in the basal region of the epithelial cells lining the lumen. Immunoexpression was greater during oestrus than during either dioestrus or anoestrus. During anoestrus, there was little immunostaining in the endometrium, suggesting that HSP90 is involved in the functional modulation of sex steroid receptors in cyclic mares. Indeed, the function of HSP90 as a chaperone in the folding of proteins, such as steroid receptors, might explain the greater intensity of immunostaining during the oestrus and dioestrus phases, compared the anoestrus period. We conclude that, in the mare, HSP90 plays a role in endometrial function and that further studies are needed to test whether it is important in pathological conditions as endometritis.

Maternal undernutrition during pregnancy and lactation affects testicular morphology, the stages of spermatogenic cycle, and the testicular IGF-I system in adult offspring.

Maternal undernutrition decreases sperm production in male offspring, possibly through insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I). To test this hypothesis, we fed pregnant Wistar rats ad libitum with a standard diet (CONTROL) or fed 50% of CONTROL intake, either throughout pregnancy (UNP), lactation (UNL, or both (UNPL). After weaning, male offspring (n = 10 per treatment) were fed a standard diet until postnatal day 160, when testes process for histological and molecular analyses. IGF-I immunostaining area and intensity in the testis were greater (P = 0.003) in the UNPL group compared to CONTROL, but lower in the UNP group (P < 0.0001). Levels of IGF-I receptor transcript were lower in the UNPL and UNL groups, compared to CONTROL. There were more Ki-67-positive germ and Sertoli cells, in all underfed groups than in CONTROL. Compared to CONTROL, frequency of spermatogenic cycle stage VII was lower in all underfed groups, and seminiferous tubule diameter was smaller in UNP and UNPL. Plasma FSH concentrations were greater in UNP male offspring compared to all groups (P = 0.05), whereas inhibin B concentrations were greater in UNP (P = 0.01) and UNL (P = 0.003) than in CONTROL or UNPL. Thus, prenatal undernutrition leads to a decrease in testicular IGF-I levels, whereas of pre- and postnatal undernutrition increased testicular IGF-I levels and decreased amounts of IGF-I receptor mRNA in adult offspring. We conclude that maternal undernutrition during pregnancy and lactation leads to long-lasting effects on adult male offspring testicular morphology, spermatogenesis, and IGF-I testicular system.

Viabilidad de Ovocitos Vitrificados y Madurados in Vitro de Gata Doméstica Adulta (Felis catus) en Estación Reproductiva / Vitrified and in Vitro Matured Oocytes Viability from Adult Housecat (Felis catus) in Reproductive Season

La vitrificación de ovocitos de mamíferos es considerada una técnica en experimentación. La supervivencia de los ovocitos es extremadamente variable, según las técnicas utilizadas e influida por una serie de condiciones. El objetivo de éste trabajo fue determinar los efectos de la vitrificación en ovocitos de gata domestica adulta en estación reproductiva y madurados in vitro. Se obtuvieron 33 ovarios correspondientes a hembras de más de un año en buen estado nutricional y sin tratamiento hormonal, ovariectomizadas en domicilio del propietario por profesional veterinario. Los ovarios fueron trasladados al laboratorio y se fragmentaron por microdisección bajo microscopio estereoscópico en caja de Petri con solución de buffer fosfato salino modificado con suero de ternero inactivado y antibióticos para la obtención, evaluación y selección de los complejos cúmulo-ovocitos (CCOs) de buena calidad. Se vitrificaron 506 CCOs en pajuelas de 0.25 ml con 10-12 ovocitos cada una y almacenados por 30 días en nitrógeno líquido (N2) a -196 C. Posteriormente se desvitrificaron las pajuelas, recuperándose 320 CCOs, los que fueron madurados in vitro. Transcurrido ese tiempo se evaluaron los CCOs, descartándose 50 por presentar signos de degeneración. En los 270 restantes se observó buena expansión del cúmulo, citoplasma uniforme y oscuro e integridad de la zona pelúcida. A estos últimos se los dividió en dos grupos similares para evaluar la viabilidad, a uno se lo coloreó con metil tiazol tetrazolio y al otro con Azul Tripán. En ambos se constató un resultado positivo para la viabilidad de los CCOs. El análisis de los resultados nos permite concluir que la vitrificación comprometió la integridad de un importante número de CCOs aunque más del 50% respondió en cultivo favorablemente, mostrando signos de viabilidad esperados. Estos resultados hacen necesarios la profundización en el mejoramiento del protocolo para incrementar el porcentaje de viabilidad.

Vitrification of mammalian oocytes is a technique considered in experimentation. Oocyte survival is extremely variable, according to the techniques used and influenced by a number of conditions. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of adult domestic cat oocyte matured in vitro and vitrified in breeding season. We obtained 33 ovaries from housecats in good nutritional status without hormonal treatment, ovariectomized by a veterinary professional at home. The ovaries were transported to the laboratory and fragmented by microdissection under a stereoscopic microscope in a petri dish with modified buffer saline phosphate solution, inactivated calf serum and antibiotics to the collection, evaluation and selection of good quality cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). 506 COCs were vitrified in 0.25 ml straws each with 10­12 oocytes and stored for 30 days in liquid nitrogen (N2) at -196 °C. Then the straws were thawed, recovering 320 CCOs, which were matured in vitro. After this time the COCs were evaluated, discarding 50 which showed signs of degeneration. In the remaining 270 COCs good cumulus expansion was observed and also uniformly dark cytoplasm and integrity of the zona pellucida. The latter were divided into two similar groups to assess the feasibility; one was stained with Methylthiazblyl tetrazolium and the other with Trypan Blue. Both tested positive for the viability of the CCOs was found. The analysis of the results allow us to conclude that vitrification compromised the integrity of a large number of CCOs although more than 50% responded favorably in culture, showing signs of expected viability. According to these results it is necessary to further improve the protocol to increase the percentage of viability.

Prepubertal estrogen exposure modifies neurotrophin receptor expression in celiac neurons and alters ovarian innervation.

Estradiol is a key hormone in the regulation of reproductive processes acting both on peripheral organs and sympathetic neurons associated to reproductive function. However, many of its regulatory effects on the development and function on the sympathetic neurons have not been completely clarified. Sympathetic neurons located in the celiac ganglion projects to visceral, vascular and glandular targets, and contribute to ovarian innervation, being the main source of sympathetic fibers. In the present study, we analyze the effects of elevated levels of exogenous estrogen during the prepubertal period in post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons. Estrogen exposure induced a significant increase in sympathetic celiac neuronal size and modified the expression of neurotrophin receptor p75. This change affected mainly small and medium size neurons. The effect of estrogens on innervation of celiac target organs was heterogeneous, inducing a significant increase in catecholaminergic innervation of the ovary, but not of the pyloric muscular layers. These findings further support the role of estrogen as a modulator of neuronal plasticity and suggest that estrogen could modify some features involved in the relation between sympathetic immature peripheral neurons and their target organs throughout a neurotrophin-dependent mechanism.

Sympathetic pharmacological denervation in ageing rats: effects on ovulatory response and follicular population.

The present study analyses the participation of ovarian innervation during reproductive senescence. We use the model of acute peripheral pharmacological sympathetic denervation with guanethidine in young (3 months old), middle-aged (12 months old) or old (18 months old) rats with spontaneous or induced ovulation. Ovarian levels of norepinephrine (NE) were measured by HPLC and the oestrous cycle, the number of ovulating animals and the percentage of atretic follicles were also assessed. Aged animals showed a progressive reduction in ovulatory capacity and an increase in ovarian NE content. Acute denervation increased the percentage of healthy follicles in 12- and 18-month-old rats compared with control adult animals. Combined treatment of denervation plus stimulation with gonadotrophins doubled the number of ova shed in young adult rats and restablished a partial ovulation in 12-month-old rats. The results suggest that ovarian noradrenergic innervation plays a modulator role in ovarian physiology during the ageing ovary process. The action of ovarian noradrenergic innervation seems to be associated with folliculogenesis and the ovarian response to gonadotrophins.

Intrinsic neurons in the mammalian ovary.

Mammalian ovarian function is under endocrine and neural control. Although the extrinsic innervation of the ovary has been implicated in the control of both ovarian development and mature function, it is now clear that, from rats to humans, the ovary is endowed with a network of intrinsic neurons displaying diverse chemical phenotypes. This article describes the presence of these intrinsic neurons in the ovary of different mammalian species, and discusses the possible functions that they may have in the regulation of ovarian physiology.